School Buildings Research Articles

A study of the response of reinforced concrete frames with and without masonry infill walls to earthquake motions

In developing countries prone to frequent earthquakes, it is common practice to use masonry infill walls as partitions in reinforced concrete frame buildings. Frames with infill have smaller drift demands and smaller drift capacities relative to similar frames without infill. Whether the relative reduction in drift demand offsets the plausible reduction in drift capacity remains open to discussion. This investigation provides experimental evidence on drift demands and drift capacities for both frames with and frames without infill. To make fair comparisons, only experiments where sets of nominally identical reinforced concrete frames, at least one frame with no infill and at least one frame with infill, are considered. Because many static experiments provide evidence for the reduction in drift capacity caused by infill, the objective of the dynamic experiments described in this study is to quantify the reduction in drift demand attributed to infill. Results of dynamic tests show that frames with infill drifted no more than one-third the amount similar frames without infill drifted in simulated base motions of the same intensity. Results of static tests show that the smallest drift capacities of frames with infill were approximately one-half of the drift capacities of similar frames without infill. These two experimental observations indicate that infill reduces drift demand more than it reduces drift capacity suggesting an overall beneficial effect of the infill. Field data were used to test this idea. Based on surveys of low-rise school buildings, RC frames with more full-height infill walls tend to have less earthquake damage than frames with less infill. A convenient method to quantify the amount of infill walls in buildings is computing wall ratios defined as the ratio of cross-sectional area of masonry infill walls on ground floor to total floor area above ground floor. Projections of the field data suggest that infill wall ratios of at least 0.5% in both directions of a building reduce the likelihood of severe structural damage by 300% compared with smaller ratios. The use of infill presents an inexpensive yet effective retrofit technique, even if only for temporary use, for strengthening buildings vulnerable to earthquake damage.

Simulating a Massive Shift towards Photovoltaics without Implying Land Consumption: A Stepwise Approach for Regional Decision Making

As part of the transition to renewable energy production, the use of photovoltaics is not sustainable per se. Planning can guide PV development while minimising possible negative impacts on society, the economy, and the environment. To date, however, the lack of adequate tools and information at the local level and the lack of integrated planning in the design of energy initiatives are key challenges. This paper aims to support a sustainable energy transition at the regional level and proposes a methodology to (i) determine the area required to achieve transition goals through PV; (ii) evaluate possible alternative surface categories for PV installation without consuming additional land. Through the illustrative case study of the Veneto Region, electricity demand is calculated based on consumption data, and the area needed to cover this demand through PV is calculated. Areas available for PV installation were mapped, classified (e.g., roofs of houses, parking lots, school buildings, …), and quantified through GIS. The results show that the available areas correspond to 11 times those needed to achieve the goals. This work provides a methodology to support regional decision makers to take a concrete step toward sustainable transition policies. This methodology can be replicated for other regional contexts.

Teaching mathematics in innovative learning environments—The entangled tensions between the learning environment and pedagogy

AbstractNew school buildings are often designed for flexible innovative learning environments (ILEs) to support learning future skills better than before. However, little is known about the relationship between environment and pedagogy. This article examines the relationship between the environment and pedagogy from the perspective of primary school teachers in the context of teaching mathematics. We interviewed 26 teachers from 10 Finnish ILEs and did a thematic analysis. The relationship between the environment and pedagogy forms a complex network of entangled tensions between teacher's inner space, community's social space and physical space. When the tensions between these spaces were resolved in a positive way, ILEs enabled pedagogy that diversified mathematics education, improved student cohesion and teachers' well‐being at work. However, the ILEs' transformation process often appears to be left unfinished, leading to unsuccessful resolution of tensions. Further, our findings highlight the importance of four‐dimensional environmental competence in exploiting the affordances enabled by ILE.

Seismic Damage Probability Assessment of Existing Reinforced Concrete School Buildings in Afghanistan

Existing Reinforced Concrete School buildings with low earthquake resistance may suffer structural failure or severe damage in a catastrophic seismic event. Ascertaining earthquake resistance in existing school buildings is vital to confirming the safety of students, teachers, and all school members. Reinforced concrete (RC) has been used significantly for numerous years as the primary material due to its easy access and low cost-effectiveness in construction. The current research focused on analyzing the existing RC school buildings designed and constructed in various regions of Afghanistan over the last three decades. Seismic fragility curves, which are generated from incremental dynamic analysis (IDA), have been used to evaluate the damage probability of RC school buildings against earthquake ground motions. In this investigation, 34 RC school buildings were selected from an extensive database and subsequently classified as either A-type or B-type based on specific criteria, including design details and construction year. Following this classification, an assessment of the seismic damage probability for these buildings was conducted using probabilistic models based on IDA curves. The results indicate that A-type school buildings with newer construction are less prone to damage compared to B-type school buildings, showing improved resilience. Especially the B-type buildings in seismic Zone-I are found to be highly vulnerable under the maximum considered earthquake scenarios.

School buildings as performative machines: the new architectural devices of control

ABSTRACT The past two decades saw a growing attention to the role of design for the geography of education and simultaneously shifted architectural attention towards the understanding of different forms of pedagogy. Yet, careful empirical engagements with the material architecture of contemporary school buildings and the experiences they mediate are still scarce or missing. Focussing on how mechanisms of control are imagined and practiced in the design and use of school buildings, this article fleshes out a picture of the performative spatial machinery of schools. It will do so drawing on designers’ accounts, plans and visions for a Building Schools for the Future (BSF) building in Liverpool, UK and on accounts of the experiences of different school dwellers. Overcoming the dualist understanding of education as an activity that happens in objective frames of learning (the static architecture of the schools) or the subjective interpretations of users (the perception of teachers and students), we trace specific practices of ‘dwelling’ in the school building and identify architectural and designerly techniques for modulating control. Instead of dissipating or reducing control, or merely re-producing the classic forms of power, this versatile and porous type of architecture, we argue, multiplies and diversifies the forms of ‘polycentric’ control exercised through various intersecting lines of sight and sound.

New Possibilities for Spatial Research: Re-Animating the Built Environment Through Speculative Maps and Models

This article presents creative methodologies for studying the emotionally charged environment of school buildings, with particular attention to situated movements and modes of engagement after the Covid pandemic. Drawing on digital-sensory methods and futuring practices, developed in collaboration with staff and students in a UK secondary school, we present a series of speculative architectural models and living maps. Our approach is informed by Bruno Latour’s concept of the Terrestrial as a metamorphic zone that includes the built environment, with connections to contemporary architecture and design practices. We use techniques in speculative cartography and cosmography, creating maps and models that show how students negotiate the affective atmosphere and social-material ecology associated with school buildings.

Energy consumption baseline for public schools in the West Bank-Palestine

Schools play a significant role in social development which is one of the three major pillars of sustainable development. Schools are also a hub to promote sustainable practices, and hence, it is imperative to measure the actual energy performance of school buildings. This research was designed to quantify the actual energy consumption in public school buildings in the West Bank in Palestine to establish a baseline for energy consumption in public school buildings. Methodologically, the historical energy performance of a representative random sample consisting of 103 schools in the West Bank was statistically analysed. The results show that the average annual energy consumption in public school buildings is 10,368 kilowatt-hour (kWh), while the annual energy use intensity is around 8.35 kWh/m2/year, and 35.44 kWh/student/year. The results presented in this research are not surprisingly low due to the fact that energy consumption in school buildings is heavily determined by heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems which often do not exist in public school buildings in the West Bank. This research is the first to provide empirical statistical evidence about the actual amount of energy consumed in public school buildings in the West Bank, as well as it is the first to present a baseline energy consumption for public schools. The results presented in this research can be used as an industry benchmark by policy and decision-makers to assess green schools’ performance which, besides reducing the negative impacts on the environment, have the potential to improve health, productivity and, education environment.

RiskSchools: a prioritization-based system for the risk assessment of school buildings combining rapid visual screening smartphone app and detailed vulnerability analysis

AbstractA multi-purpose and multi-scale tool for the seismic vulnerability and risk classification of critical buildings, such as schools, is proposed for pre- and post-event decision-making to mitigate the risk and reduce losses. The herein proposed “RiskSchools” system, is capable of performing the seismic risk assessment and grading of school buildings at various scales (district, municipality, region etc.), using (a) a pre-seismic rapid visual screening and grading of the school buildings in different vulnerability-risk classes and (b) a seismic risk assessment of the school buildings population, applying probabilistic or scenario-based methods for the seismic hazard and analytical methods for the vulnerability and risk assessment, also leading to a grading of the buildings’ risk. The results of the two approaches are compared and combined through a flexible and adaptable expert elicitation scheme to provide a final classification of the seismic risk of the school buildings in the scale of interest and a prioritization scheme with respect to the need for seismic upgrade and retrofitting. The RiskSchools system consists of a powerful, state-of-the-art, user-friendly, and easy-to-use smartphone application for the compilation of the inventory and the rapid visual screening, and a project-dedicated multi-purpose webGIS platform for the seismic vulnerability and risk classification of school buildings at any scale. Although it is initially developed and applied to the school building stock of the Region of Central Macedonia in Greece, it has been specifically designed to be easily applied to other regions of Greece and worldwide and adapted to other critical buildings, like health care and hospital buildings. The ultimate scope of the RiskSchools System is to allow for the optimal design of decision-making procedures in support of disaster management to enhance critical buildings resilience.

Spatial distribution of CO2 Impact on the indoor air quality of classrooms within a University

Indoor air quality (IAQ) remains a public and global concern. While CO2 does not pose health risks to occupants, high CO2 levels indicate insufficient ventilation, potentially accumulating pollutant concentrations. In buildings, occupants are identified as the main source of indoor carbon dioxide (CO2) through exhalation. Standard classrooms may have occupant density between 1.8 and 2.4m2/person. Therefore, the IAQ of classrooms and lecture theatres remain a concern. This study investigated airflow and contaminant (using CO2 as a proxy) distribution in two classrooms modelled using CFX a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software, verified against experimental measurements. The model provides the visualization of flow patterns so that the effects of external and internal flow fields in the classroom can be studied. The results show that there are large differences in classroom indoor ventilation performance due to the effects of wind direction and wind speed on building surface wind pressure from outdoor wind speeds. Windward high-pressure surfaces and leeward vortices created by building shading promote indoor air quality in buildings with windcatcher openings. The concentration distribution of CO in the classrooms showed an upward convergence with the thermal plume generated by the respiratory differences of the personnel and the temperature of the lighting equipment. The results of this study have important implications for improving classroom design guidelines for school buildings, especially in terms of ventilation strategies and air quality monitoring.

School architecture, its adaptability and forms of student’s life at school: a case study of the art high school in Cracow

The case study research presented here focuses on the modern building of the State High School of Fine Arts in Cracow. The objective was to examine the adaptability of school architecture in response to new educational challenges. The survey gathered data using a paper questionnaire involving most students (N = 167). Mixed techniques were used to collect data, including participant drawings and free statements. The investigated issues included evaluating the school’s responsiveness to students’ needs, understanding the meaning of places, identifying students’ favourite places, and exploring the emotional relationship and identification with school goals and use of school space. The findings indicate that students value the school’s artistic ambience, desire greater space flexibility for participation and creativity, and a dedicated area for everyday needs.

Analysis of the Energy Consumption for Heating in Schools

Abstract The aim of the study is to analyse energy consumption for heating in set of the school buildings. Data analysis includes three data sets – predictions from energy performance certificates (EPC), measured data from heat meters and measured climate corrected data. Data sets were statistically checked and processed and represented graphically. The actual energy consumption differs from the one stated in the EPCs in all cases, which means that schools consume on average 15 % more energy than it is stated in the EPC. Overall, the data reveal that the actual energy consumption differs from the theoretical consumption, with all schools having higher actual consumption than the theoretical values. The differences in the data sets are discussed, and possible improvements are suggested taking into account strong relation between energy consumption and indoor air quality.

단위학교 소방안전교육 인식도 분석 및 개선방안 연구

This study analyzed the perception of fire safety education methods, satisfaction, consciousness, and behavior as the risk of fire increases due to the high-rise nature, complexity, and undergroundization of new schools and the aging of older school buildings. Based on the analysis, this study proposes improvement measures such as effective fire safety education methods, support measures, and curriculum organization. Differences in perception and needs between faculty and staff were first analyzed based on data of selfawareness of fire safety education conducted for school faculty and staff in the Sejong City Office of Education. As a result, remote training was the highest in the fire safety education method, and satisfaction was in the order of teachers, administrative staff, and educational assistants. In addition, the degree of change in fire safety awareness of faculty and staff was found in the order of teachers, administrative staff, and educational assistants. The degree of change in fire safety behavior was also in the order of teachers, administrative staff, and educational assistants, and an overall low awareness was found. By analyzing these needs, the following improvement measures are suggested. First, fire safety education should be conducted based on practice and experience from the perspective of an activist curriculum to enhance the ability to respond to actual incidents involving fire safety. Second, by linking fire safety education with the seven areas of school safety education, self-directed response ability can be enhanced from the perspective of a constructivist curriculum. Third, a plan is proposed to design and operate a fire safety curriculum by specializing in fire safety education according to the role of faculty members such as teachers and administrative staff.

Heuristic model predictive control implementation to activate energy flexibility in a fully electric school building

This paper presents a heuristic model predictive control (MPC) methodology to activate energy flexibility in fully electric school buildings in cold climates to reduce electricity demand during peak demand periods of the electric grid. To streamline the implementation of MPC, the proposed approach employs grey-box archetypes, a clustering of weather conditions to identify typical scenarios and a limited number of possible setpoint profiles. A data-driven grey-box approach is used to create archetype models for different thermal zones in a typical school building; this approach enables rapid development and requires much less calibration data than black-box models. A third-order resistance-capacitance thermal network for zones with convective heating and a fourth-order model for zones with radiant floor heating are developed and calibrated using measured data from an all-electric school building in Québec, Canada. The weather data are clustered into several categories, representing different weather conditions (6 clusters representing two ambient temperature ranges and three solar radiation ranges). The heuristic MPC strategy uses predefined optimal setpoint profiles for each cluster and weather prediction one day ahead to shift the building load from on-peak to off-peak hours. For each heuristic MPC scenario, the model runs a simulation using forecast weather data to quantify and activate energy flexibility in response to grid requirements. The developed MPC framework was implemented in the school used as the case study. Ten classrooms are investigated, with six using the MPC and four as a reference case with the reactive control system and default zone setpoint profiles. Results indicate that the school building can provide between 47% to 95% energy flexibility (load shifting relative to reference) during on-peak hours and up to 44% electricity cost reduction while satisfying acceptable temperature constraints. By implementing the proposed MPC, energy flexibility of 32 W/m2 of floor area for the zones with a convective heating system and 65 W/m2 of floor area for the zones with radiant heating can be achieved during a demand response event. The proposed strategy can be generalized and replicated in other school buildings.

Optimization of the building-integrated transparent photovoltaic configuration based on daylight and energy performance in school buildings in the tropics

Introduction: Numerous previous studies addressed the use of vertical facades for side lighting. They were found to be an effective daylighting aperture that helps to establish a pleasant environment, improve academic performance in schools, and promote better health. Recent studies also identified the potential for using vertical facades on high-rise buildings as building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems thanks to the large available area. In the tropics, this potential use is also supported by the availability of abundant solar energy. The technology of transparent PV (TPV) offers the opportunity to meet both needs. It serves as a side lighting aperture and building-integrated transparent photovoltaic (BITPV) depending on several factors, such as the visible transmittance (VT) value and the number of cells. For side lighting, a higher VT value is required to allow for optimal daylight penetration. However, more cell numbers and lower VT are preferable for BITPV. Previous studies found that BITPV is suggested for buildings with a window-to-wall ratio (WWR) of 45 % or more, which seems too high for tropical buildings where the suggested WWR is typically in the range of 30–40 %. Purpose of the study: This study aims to find the optimum configuration and present a systematic method for optimizing BITPV for tropical school building facades. Methods: An experimental approach using simulation as a tool was employed to achieve the objective. A site with a typical school layout in the tropics was selected as the research context. Treatment based on VT and cell numbers was applied to create several post-test models. Results and discussion: In the tropics, when using low-transparency TPV, BITPV with 31.25 % WWR and 30 % cell coverage ratio is found to provide the optimum visual health and comfort, as well as energy performance. Meanwhile, BITPV with 31.25 % WWR and 50 % cell coverage ratio is found to be the optimum configuration when using high-transparency TPV. Furthermore, this study presents a systematic method for designing BITPV for a multi-story school building in the tropics.

Evaluation of Different Strengthening Projects of Yenice Kalaycılar Primary School According to 2007 and 2019 Turkish Earthquake Regulations

Earthquakes that frequently occur in Turkey may cause structural damage in structures, and/or existing structures cannot provide the new earthquake code requirements. This matter requires us to check the static suitability of existing structures and strengthen them when necessary. In this article, a comparative evaluation of two different strengthening projects, which are considered to be implemented in Kalaycılar primary school in Yenice district of Karabük province, according to 2007 and 2019 Turkish earthquake regulations, is made. For this purpose, the survey projects of the said school building were first prepared, and laboratory experiments were carried out according to the level of comprehensive knowledge. Then, according to the findings obtained from the laboratory experiments, the performance analyses of the school building in question were made according to the 2007 and 2019 Turkish earthquake regulations. According to carried out the performance analyses, two different strengthening projects prepared for the school building have presented some results and suggestions by comparing the 2007 and 2019 Turkish earthquake regulations.

Sustainability-Based Value Engineering Management as an Integrated Approach to Construction Projects

The integration of sustainability standards and value engineering methods in public education projects is a significant concern, as it ensures the well-being and sustainability goals of students, lecturers, and employees. This study aims to enhance sustainability within public education campuses by utilizing value engineering processes that establish a balanced correlation between the available budget costs and the sustainability costs that affect educational objectives, strategies, and the overall sustainability of the environment. In order to evaluate the integration of value engineering and the sustainability rating system “LEED protocols” for schools, the study utilized HAP (Hourly Analysis Program) software to perform numerical analysis, with the objective of improving environmental efficiency and cost-effectiveness in school buildings from the perspective of both male and female students. By applying this approach to all engineering disciplines, systems, and materials involved in the project, the study achieved impressive results, including a reduction in energy usage by 53.67%, a cost reduction of 27.48% from the total project budget, and 13 points earned in credit C1 and credit C2 in the Energy and Atmosphere EA category in LEED 2009. These findings are of great importance for the planning and execution of construction projects, specifically in the context of educational infrastructure, and provide valuable insights into the construction and renovation of school buildings, which can be used to enhance the safety, functionality, and aesthetic appeal of these facilities.

Organic Pollutants Removal in a Hybrid Constructed Wetland Wastewater Treatment Plant with an Aeration System

This study presents the efficiency of TSS and organic pollutants (BOD5 and COD) removal in a hybrid constructed wetland wastewater treatment plant (VF-HF type) with an aeration system. This study was conducted over 6 years (2017–2022) in a facility with a capacity of 4.5 m3/day located in southeastern Poland and designed to treat real domestic wastewater from a school building. The studied facility consists of a three-chambered septic tank, a pumping station with an aeration system, and two beds with vertical and horizontal flow planted with giant miscanthus and willow. As a result of artificial aeration, the dissolved oxygen concentration in wastewater after mechanical treatment increased significantly, by an average of 1.18 mg O2/L, and was negatively correlated with wastewater temperature. The cumulative pollutant removal effects of the treatment plant (primary settling tank + VFCW + HFCW) were 81% for TSS, 98% for BOD5, and 89% for COD. There was no statistically significant effect of aeration on the organic pollutant removal effects in the VF bed, and such an effect was found for the temperature of wastewater entering the VF bed. The TSS, BOD5, and COD removal effects in the VF bed and BOD5 in the VF-HF system were positively correlated with air temperature. The technological reliability of the treatment plant was 98% for TSS and 100% for BOD5 and COD. The use of artificial aeration of wastewater makes it possible to achieve high organic pollutant removal efficiency in SSF CWs and to compensate for limitations due to the reduction in the area of constructed wetland beds.

Passive strategies for energy-efficient educational facilities: Insights from a mediterranean primary school

This study investigates the thermal and energetic dynamics of primary school classrooms in a Mediterranean climate in Khoualed Abdel Hakeem, Ain Temouchent County, Algeria. The research highlights significant optimizations by focusing on passive strategies such as external shading devices, Window-to-Wall Ratio (WWR), glazing types, and building envelope adjustments. Our simulations, validated rigorously, showcase a remarkable congruence with actual electricity consumption, affirming the reliability and efficacy of our simulation model as a valuable predictive tool. A Vertical Shading Angle (VSA) of 60° proves optimal, resulting in an impressive 11% reduction in Annual Energy Consumption (AEC). A recommended WWR of 30% demonstrates an 11% decrease in AEC and improves thermal and energy efficiency. Double Low Emissivity (Double-Low E) glazing is found to be superior, resulting in a significant 14% decrease in AEC. Achieving a WWR of 50% in shaded areas helps maintain a well-balanced thermal environment, resulting in a 12% reduction in heating and cooling requirements. The integration of passive strategies in the optimized model showcases a remarkable 44% overall reduction in energy consumption. The results highlight the efficacy of passive strategies, promoting energy-conscious and ecologically responsible practices, advocating for their incorporation in educational facilities, and offering valuable insights for sustainable school building design.

Expanding Education Researchers' Access to Classroom Observation Data With a Remote and Cost-Effective Video Data Collection Protocol.

The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated long-term shifts to virtual instruction among most US schools presented notable challenges among education researchers. Ongoing projects conducted in school settings experienced sudden losses of access to teacher and student participants, in many cases leading to severe interruptions to data collection efforts. Perhaps most notably, upon returns to in-person instruction in the 2021/22 academic year most schools instigated strict policies limiting the number of non-school personnel who could enter school buildings, including researchers conducting in-person data collections. As such, many researchers had to find alternative means to gather data. In this paper, we offer a new protocol that we created in response to these challenges that allows for the secure and fully remote collection of video data in school settings. This new protocol not only addressed the immediate needs of the focal study but also addresses some of the most notable barriers to collecting classroom video data in the field of education research at large. In this paper, we describe the initial development and application of this protocol among a local study of elementary teachers, as well as the scaling of this protocol in a study of elementary teachers in multiple states. It is our hope that this protocol can expand education researchers', practitioners', and policymakers' access to classroom video data.

Effect of External Project Environment on the Success of Construction of Les Hirondelles Nursery and Primary School Buildings Projets in Kigali City, Rwanda By IJISRT

The study “Effect of external project environment on the success of Construction of les Hirondelles nursery and primary school buildings projects in Kigali City” is directed by the following precise objectives: to determine the effect of economic environment, to analyse the effect of political environment, to examine the effect of physical environment and to find out the effect of technological environment on the success of construction of les Hirondelles nursery and primary school buildings projects in Kigali City. Both descriptive and inferential research designs were employed in the study. There were 86 employees in the study's sample. A questionnaire was utilized to gather data, and the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was employed to assist with the usage of descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and multiple linear regressions as data analysis techniques. The results indicate that effective economic environment has positive significant effect on the projects as evidenced by B= 0.468, p-value=0.000<0.05. The findings revealed that political environment affect the projects negatively as evidenced by B= -0.167, p- value=0.000<0.05. The findings showed a positive significant effect of physical environment on the projects as evidenced by B=0.504, p-value=0.000<0.05 and the study showed a positive significant effect of technological environment on the projects as evidenced by B=0.362, p- value equals to 0.000<0.05. The study’s conclusion was that physical environment had the greatest positive effect on success of the projects followed by economic environment and then technological environment having the least effect on success of the projects. However political environment had a negative effect on success of the projects.